History

• Hallmark of generalized anxiety disorder is excessive worrying and apprehensive expectation of a wide range of normal events and activities, such as: ^{r1c1c2c3c4c5c6}
  • Work or school responsibilities and interactions
  • Family health and finances
• Common psychological symptoms related to generalized anxiety disorder include: ^r8
  • Being nervous and unable to relax, with poor or disturbed sleep ^{r1c7c8c9c10c11c12c13c14}
  • Worrying about trivial or minor matters, with no control over worrying
  • Extreme restlessness and inability to concentrate ^r1c15c16
  • Irritability ^c17c18
  • Fear of the worst happening and feeling scared in general
  • Feeling that objects are unreal (derealization) or that the self is “not really here” (depersonalization) ^r7c19c20
  • Sensation of losing control, “going crazy,” or passing out ^r7c21c22
  • Fear of death ^r7c23
• Muscle tension and fatigability are highly correlated with generalized anxiety disorder ^r1c24c25
• Common physical symptoms related to anxiety include the following, ranked in order of clinical significance: ^r9
  • Palpitations ^c26c27
  • Dyspepsia or abdominal discomfort ^c28c29
  • Dizziness ^c30c31
  • Unsteady gait ^c32c33
  • Dyspnea ^c34c35
  • Feeling hot and/or experiencing diaphoresis, regardless of ambient temperature ^c36c37
  • Feeling faint, hands trembling, and face flushing ^c38c39c40
  • Paresthesia marked by numbness and tingling ^c41c42c43
  • Choking sensation ^c44
• Other common physical symptoms include: ^r1
  • Nausea ^c45
  • Diarrhea ^c46
  • Cold extremities ^c47
  • Xerostomia ^c48
  • Bruxism ^c49
  • Headache ^c50
• Symptoms are typically more severe in younger adults ^r1

Physical examination

• Signs related to general emotional well-being include nervousness, irritability, and heightened vigilance ^r1c51c52c53
• Physical signs include: ^r1
  • Visible tremor ^c54
  • Cold hands ^c55
  • Tachycardia ^c56
  • Tachypnea ^c57

Causes

• Exact cause is unknown ^c58
  • Onset of pure generalized anxiety disorder is often associated with stress arising from emotional loss and dangerous situations ^r10c59
    • Includes loss of a close relative or long-term separation from a partner ^c60c61
  • Childhood adversity has a 32.4% association with anxiety disorders ^r11c62

Risk factors and/or associations

Primary diagnostic tools

• Diagnosis is based on patient history and physical examination findings; DSM-5-TR criteria must be met for a diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder ^r1c80
  • Excessive use of alcohol, caffeine, or other stimulants must be ruled out as a cause of symptoms
• GAD-7 scale^r8 and Beck Anxiety Inventory^r9 are alternative diagnostic tools that have proven efficacy in diagnosis, especially the GAD-7
  • GAD-7 assesses symptoms over the past 2 weeks instead of 6 months (per DSM-5-TR^r1) using 7 criteria, operating on the assumption that severe symptoms are typically chronic ^r8
  • Beck Anxiety Inventory contains 21 items comprising somatic, affective, and cognitive symptoms related specifically to anxiety disorders ^r9

  • GAD-7 scale.

    Scoring: Sum each column. Then sum the column totals to achieve a grand score. The GAD-2 subscale is composed of the first 2 items of the GAD-7 scale.

    From Wild B et al: Assessing generalized anxiety disorder in elderly people using the GAD-7 and GAD-2 scales: results of a validation study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 22(10):1029-38, Figure 1.

    Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by the following problems?	Not at all	Several days	More than half the days	Nearly every day
    Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge	0	1	2	3
    Not being able to stop or control worrying	0	1	2	3
    Worrying too much about different things	0	1	2	3
    Trouble relaxing	0	1	2	3
    Being so restless that it is hard to sit still	0	1	2	3
    Becoming easily annoyed or irritable	0	1	2	3
    Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen	0	1	2	3
    Total score

  • Beck anxiety inventory.

    Scoring: Sum each column. Then sum the column totals to achieve a grand score.

    From Zarate R: Clinical improvisation and its effect on anxiety: a multiple single subject design. The Arts in Psychotherapy.48:46-53, 2016, Figure A1.

    	Not at all	Mildly but it didn't bother me much	Moderately—it wasn't pleasant at times	Severely—it bothered me a lot
    Numbness or tingling	0	1	2	3
    Feeling hot	0	1	2	3
    Wobbliness in legs	0	1	2	3
    Unable to relax	0	1	2	3
    Fear of worst happening	0	1	2	3
    Dizzy or lightheaded	0	1	2	3
    Heart pounding/racing	0	1	2	3
    Unsteady	0	1	2	3
    Terrified or afraid	0	1	2	3
    Nervous	0	1	2	3
    Feeling of choking	0	1	2	3
    Hands trembling	0	1	2	3
    Shaky/unsteady	0	1	2	3
    Fear of losing control	0	1	2	3
    Difficulty in breathing	0	1	2	3
    Fear of dying	0	1	2	3
    Scared	0	1	2	3
    Indigestion	0	1	2	3
    Faint/lightheaded	0	1	2	3
    Face flushed	0	1	2	3
    Hot/cold sweats	0	1	2	3
    Column sum

• Comprehensive clinical interview is used to assess for the following DSM-5-TR criteria: ^r1
  • Excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation) about various events or activities (eg, work or school performance), occurring more days than not, lasting 6 months or longer
  • Patient has difficulty controlling this worry
  • Anxiety and worry occur in conjunction with at least 3 (only 1 required in children) of the following symptoms, with at least some symptoms having been present for more days than not for the past 6 months:
    • Restlessness
    • Fatigability
    • Compromised ability to concentrate
    • Crankiness/irritability
    • Increased muscle tension
    • Poor sleep quality, including trouble falling asleep, difficulty staying asleep, or restlessness
  • Patient's symptoms lead to clinical distress and engender negative effects on work, school, or everyday life
  • Another medical condition or substance use disorder is not the cause
  • Different mental disorder has not given rise to the patient's symptoms
• Maintain a high index of suspicion for medical conditions that could cause the symptoms; laboratory testing is generally deferred, but CBC, thyroid function tests, basic chemistry panel, urine drug screening, and ECG should be obtained as indicated by the clinical presentation and medical history ^r15

Functional testing

• GAD-7 ^r8c81
  • Consists of 7 criteria, namely:
    • Feeling nervous, anxious, or on edge
    • Not being able to stop or control worrying
    • Worrying too much about different things
    • Trouble relaxing
    • Being so restless that it is hard to sit still
    • Becoming easily annoyed or irritable
    • Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen
  • Subjects rate how often they have been bothered by each symptom in the last 2 weeks, with responses being 0 (not at all), 1 (several days), 2 (more than half the days), and 3 (nearly every day); total score ranges from 0 to 21
    • Threshold score of 8 maximizes sensitivity and 15 maximizes specificity ^r8
    • Threshold of 10 is optimal for high sensitivity and specificity ^r8
  • Interpretation ^r16
    • 10: moderate anxiety
    • 15: severe anxiety
• Beck Anxiety Inventory ^r9c82
  • Comprises 21 criteria, specifically:
    • Numbness or tingling
    • Feeling hot
    • Wobbliness in legs
    • Unable to relax
    • Fear of the worst happening
    • Dizzy or lightheaded
    • Heart pounding or racing
    • Unsteady
    • Terrified
    • Nervous
    • Feelings of choking
    • Hands trembling
    • Shaky
    • Fear of losing control
    • Difficulty breathing
    • Fear of dying
    • Scared
    • Indigestion or discomfort in abdomen
    • Faint
    • Face flushed
    • Sweating (not due to heat)
  • Subjects are asked to rate how much each symptom has affected them over the past week on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (severely—I could barely stand it); total score ranges from 0 to 63
  • Interpretation ^r17
    • 0 to 9: normal
    • 10 to 18: mild to moderate anxiety
    • 19 to 29: moderate to severe anxiety
    • 30 to 63: severe anxiety

Procedures ^c83c84

Most common

• Anxiety due to thyroid disorder ^c85c86c87
  • Characterized by unusually high^r18 or low^r19 levels of thyroxine due to dysfunction or removal of thyroid gland
  • Anxiety and/or depression symptoms (eg, being more irritable, sad, emotionally sensitive, or anxious) ^r20
  • Differentiating features are as follows: ^r21
    • Hypothyroidism can also present with fatigue, dry skin, constipation, vocal changes, and prolonged ankle jerk reflex ^r21
    • Hyperthyroidism can also present with hypertension, tachycardia, warm and moist skin, and brisk ankle jerk reflex ^r18
  • DSM-5-TR diagnostic criteria:
    • Evidence from history, physical examination, or laboratory findings that disturbance is a direct pathophysiologic consequence of another medical condition
    • Disturbance is not better explained by another mental disorder
    • Disturbance does not occur exclusively during the course of a delirium
    • Disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by the following laboratory findings:
    • Hypothyroidism ^d1
      • TSH level is elevated to more than 10 mIU/L in primary hypothyroidism ^r19r22
      • Low serum levels of total or free thyroxine ^r20
    • Hyperthyroidism ^d2
      • TSH level is suppressed ^r18
      • High serum levels of total or free thyroxine
• Illness anxiety disorder ^r23r24c88d3
  • Preoccupation with the possibility of having or acquiring serious illness based on misinterpretations of benign or minor physical sensations; previously known as hypochondriasis
  • Some psychological and physical symptoms of anxiety are also present
  • Subject of anxiety differs, as the patient focuses mainly on their body and general health to the exclusion of work, finances, or family matters
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by DSM-5-TR criteria:
    • Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious illness for at least 6 months
    • Frequent visits to the clinic or maladaptive avoidance
• Social anxiety disorder (social phobia) ^r25r26c89
  • Phobic anxiety disorder with concerns about social situations involving unfamiliar people or possible scrutiny
  • Psychological and physical symptoms of anxiety are present in certain social situations
  • Anxiety is specific to social situations
    • Characterized by early onset; typically appears by age 11 years in 50% of patients and age 20 years in 80% of patients ^r26
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by DSM-5-TR criteria:
    • Extreme fear or anxiety related to meeting strangers, speaking in public, or being observed in social situations
    • Social phobia must last for at least 6 months and cause clinically significant impairment in social interactions
• Panic disorder ^r27c90
  • Marked by recurrent panic attacks or extreme but brief episodes of anxiety, at intervals ranging from 24 hours to several months; may coexist with generalized anxiety disorder
  • Physical signs and symptoms of anxiety (eg, sweating, palpitations, dizziness, tachycardia) are present during a panic attack
  • Intense fear or discomfort of an attack reaches its peak within minutes, unlike the constantly elevated anxiety of generalized anxiety disorder
    • History of childhood trauma or abuse is more likely in patients with panic disorder than in those with generalized anxiety disorder
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by DSM-5-TR criteria:
    • Extreme panic or anxiety reaching its peak within minutes, manifesting more than 4 somatic symptoms of anxiety
    • At least 1 panic attack preceded by more than 1 month of apprehensive expectation of a similar episode
• Major depressive disorder ^r28r29c91d4
  • Sadness, lethargy, and apathy lasting at least 2 weeks, with reduced interest and pleasure in normal activities; may coexist with generalized anxiety disorder
  • Irritability, fatigue, poor sleep, and digestive symptoms are typically present, as with generalized anxiety disorder
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by DSM-5-TR criteria:
    • Depressed mood for most days over 2 weeks along with at least 2 characteristic symptoms
      • Anhedonia
      • Change in weight or appetite
      • Insomnia or hypersomnia
      • Psychomotor agitation or retardation
      • Fatigue
      • Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt
      • Diminished ability to concentrate or indecisiveness
      • Suicidal ideation or attempt
• Obsessive-compulsive disorder ^r30c92
  • Characterized by continually recurring thoughts or images (obsessions) that increase anxiety and repetitive or ritualistic actions (compulsions) performed to alleviate that anxiety
  • Excessive worrying and some symptoms of anxiety can be present
  • Differentiated by repetitive rituals and behaviors (eg, hand-washing, mental acts of ordering or checking) performed to alleviate anxiety
    • Anxiety relates more to imagined or fantastic events
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by DSM-5-TR criteria:
    • Obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors take up at least 1 hour of the day
    • Patient suffers from clinically significant impairment in an occupational or social setting
• Posttraumatic stress disorder ^r31c93d5
  • Psychological disturbance or anhedonic/dysphoric mental state caused by experiencing a serious traumatic event
  • Heightened anxiety is typically present, along with its mental and physical symptoms
  • Main distinguishing criterion is the association of anxiety with a specific event, not with normal daily functioning, and the presence of flashbacks, dreams, and dissociative states relating to that event
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by DSM-5-TR criteria:
    • Adults and children older than 6 years
      • Traumatic experience (eg, grave injury, sexual violence, threat of death) or such an event affecting a close friend or relative
        • Repeated exposure to circumstances surrounding such events, as with first responders or emergency department personnel
      • Psychological disturbance lasting longer than 1 month, including invasive memories, dreams, flashbacks, avoidance of stimuli associated with such events, irritability, anxiety, and insomnia
      • Patient suffers from clinically significant impairment in an occupational or social setting
    • Children younger than 6 years, specific criteria include:
      • Witnessing traumatic events, especially those affecting a primary caregiver
      • Constriction of play, social withdrawal, and emphasis on expression of negative emotions (eg, fear, guilt, shame)
• Drug withdrawal ^r32c94d6
  • Withdrawal symptoms caused by cessation of sedative use (eg, alcohol, benzodiazepines) or opioid use ^d7
    • Initial symptoms and signs of withdrawal include heightened anxiety, as well as irritability, nausea, agitation, diaphoresis, and tachycardia from sedative or opioid use
  • Short-term episodic nature of anxiety symptoms, compared to the chronic nature of generalized anxiety disorder symptoms
    • In case of withdrawal from benzodiazepines, signs and symptoms begin 2 to 10 days after last use ^r32
    • Alcohol withdrawal may be accompanied by seizures and delirium; symptoms typically peak 72 hours after the last ingestion of alcohol (without medication) ^r32
    • Opioid withdrawal is associated with anxiety and panic symptoms, with onset typically 4 to 6 hours after last use of a shorter-acting opioid (eg, heroin, oxycodone) or 1 to 2 days after last use of an opioid with a longer half-life (eg, methadone, buprenorphine) ^r33
  • Diagnosis can be confirmed by patient history and observation
• Substance intoxication ^r1c95
  • Anxiety and panic may be present with intoxication from a variety of substances (eg, stimulants [including caffeine], alcohol, inhalants, cannabis, phencyclidine)
  • Typical history would relate anxiety to intoxication with these substances, which would typically be absent with abstinence
  • Diagnosis primarily made from patient history and clinical signs

Admission criteria

• Admit patients reporting acute suicidal ideation or intent
• Consider admission in patients with comorbid conditions (eg, significant substance use disorder with toxicity or withdrawal of sedative-hypnotics [including alcohol])

Recommendations for specialist referral

• Refer patients to a psychiatrist, psychologist, or appropriately trained mental health therapist for psychotherapy
• Psychiatric referral is necessary for patients with suicidal ideation or complex coexisting illnesses
• Psychiatric evaluation, if not already accomplished, is recommended after 2 failed medication trials (ie, 2 different drugs with no response despite reaching target dose) ^r12

Drug therapy

• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ^c96
  • Escitalopram ^r7c97
    • Escitalopram Oral tablet; Adults: The initial and recommended dose is 10 mg PO once daily. If clinically indicated, may increase to 20 mg/day after a minimum of 1 week. Periodically reassess the need for continued therapy.
    • Escitalopram Oral tablet; Geriatric Adults: The initial and recommended dose is 10 mg/day PO. Periodically reassess the need for continued therapy.
  • Paroxetine ^c98
    • Paroxetine Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Adults: 20 mg PO once daily initially, usually in the morning. May titrate by 10 mg/day at weekly intervals if needed and tolerated. Usual effective dose: 20 mg PO once daily. Max: 50 mg/day PO. DEBILITATED or GERIATRIC ADULTS: 10 mg PO once daily initially, may titrate by 10 mg/day at weekly intervals if needed; Max: 40 mg/day PO.
  • Fluoxetine ^c99
    • Fluoxetine Hydrochloride Oral tablet [Depression/Mood Disorders]; Adolescents and Children 7 years and older: Limited data; not FDA-approved. 10 mg/day PO initially, followed by titration. Limited data suggest that 20 mg/day PO may be an effective dose. Further study is needed.
  • Sertraline ^c100
    • Sertraline Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Children and Adolescents 7 years and older: 25 mg PO once daily, initially. After 1 week, increase the dose to 50 mg PO once daily. If necessary, increase at intervals of not less than 1 week. Max: 200 mg/day PO. Evaluation of the long-term safety and efficacy of sertraline in the treatment of childhood GAD is needed.
    • Sertraline Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Adults: 25 mg PO once daily initially. After 1 week, increase to 50 mg PO once daily. If necessary, increase by 50 mg/day at intervals of not less than 1 week. Max: 200 mg/day.
• Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors ^c101
  • Venlafaxine ^r7c102
    • Venlafaxine Hydrochloride Oral tablet, extended-release; Children† and Adolescents† 6 years and older: Data are limited. Two placebo-controlled trials 793 pediatric patients with GAD have been conducted with venlafaxine XR, and the data were not sufficient to support a claim for use in pediatric patients, although one study met the primary endpoint for venlafaxine XR vs. placebo. Dosage was initiated at 37.5 mg PO once daily, and dose titration was determined by weight. For patients 25 to 33 kg, dosage was titrated to a maximum of 112.5 mg/day or a lower maximum tolerated dose. For patients 34 to 49 kg, dosage was titrated to a maximum of 150 mg/day or a lower maximum tolerated dose. Max for patients 50 kg or more: 225 mg/day PO.
    • Venlafaxine Hydrochloride Oral tablet, extended-release; Adults: Initially, 75 mg PO once daily. Alternatively, 37.5 mg PO once daily can be given for 4 to 7 days to allow for tolerability before increasing to 75 mg PO once daily. If needed, may increase further by 75 mg/day at intervals of no less than every 4 days. Venlafaxine besylate ER tablets may be used in patients who have taken at least 75 mg/day for 4 or more days in order to provide 112.5 mg or 225 mg PO once daily dosage. Max: 225 mg/day PO.
  • Duloxetine ^c103
    • Duloxetine Oral capsule, gastro-resistant pellets; Children and Adolescents 7 years and older: 30 mg PO once daily for 2 weeks, initially. Then, may consider an increase to 60 mg PO once daily. Recommended range: 30 to 60 mg/day PO. Some patients may benefit from more than 60 mg/day. Increases above 60 mg/day should occur in increments of 30 mg/day. Max: 120 mg/day PO.
    • Duloxetine Oral capsule, gastro-resistant pellets; Adults: 60 mg PO once daily, initially. Alternatively, give 30 mg PO once daily for 1 week before increasing to 60 mg/day PO. Maintenance treatment range: 60 to 120 mg once daily. For dose increases above 60 mg/day, increase in increments of 30 mg/day. Max: 120 mg/day.
    • Duloxetine Oral capsule, gastro-resistant pellets; Geriatric Adults: 30 mg PO once daily for 2 weeks before considering an increase to the target dose of 60 mg once daily. Some patients may benefit from doses above 60 mg/day. For dose increases above 60 mg/day, increase in increments of 30 mg/day. Max: 120 mg/day PO.
• Benzodiazepines ^r7c104
  • Diazepam ^c105
    • Diazepam Oral solution; Infants 6 months and older, Children, and Adolescents: Initially, 1 to 2.5 mg PO 3 to 4 times per day. The dose may be increased as needed and tolerated.
    • Diazepam Oral tablet; Adults: 2 to 10 mg PO 2 to 4 times per day depending upon the severity of the symptoms. Use lower initial adult doses for the debilitated adult patient. Maximum daily dosage has not been defined, but commonly implied limit is 40 mg/day in divided doses for ambulatory use.
    • Diazepam Oral tablet; Geriatric Adults: 2 to 2.5 mg PO 1 to 2 times per day, increasing the dose according to response and patient tolerability. A maximum daily dosage has not been defined, but commonly the adult limits are 40 mg/day in divided doses for ambulatory use. Do not exceed federal Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) dose of 5 mg/day in residents of skilled nursing facilities without documentation of necessity.
  • Lorazepam ^c106
    • Lorazepam Oral solution; Adults: Initially, 2 to 3 mg/day PO given in 2 to 3 divided doses. In debilitated adults give 1 to 2 mg/day PO in 2 to 3 divided doses initially. Increase gradually as needed and tolerated. Usual dosage: 2 to 6 mg/day PO. Max: 10 mg/day PO. If a higher dosage is needed, the evening dose should be increased before the daytime doses.
    • Lorazepam Oral solution; Geriatric Adults: Initially, 1 to 2 mg/day PO given in 2 to 3 divided doses, then increase gradually as needed and tolerated. The usual dosage is 2 to 6 mg/day PO. Max: 10 mg/day PO. Use lowest effective dose. OBRA Skilled care residents: Max: 2 mg/day PO, unless documentation of need for higher doses is provided.
  • Alprazolam ^c107
    • Alprazolam Oral tablet; Adults: 0.25 mg to 0.5 mg PO 3 times daily. Increase doses at 3 to 4 day intervals. Max: 4 mg/day. When discontinuing, decrease daily dose by no more than 0.5 mg every 3 days.
    • Alprazolam Oral tablet; Geriatric Adults: Initially, 0.25 mg PO 2 or 3 times daily. Lower initial doses may be appropriate in some patients. If needed, increase dose gradually. Max: 4 mg/day. Do not exceed the federal Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) dose of 0.75 mg/day PO in residents of skilled nursing facilities without documentation of necessity. To discontinue, decrease daily dose by no more than 0.5 mg every 3 days.
• Azapirones ^c108
  • Buspirone ^r43c109
    • Buspirone Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Children† and Adolescents† 6 years and older: Effectiveness has not been established. The safety and effectiveness of buspirone in pediatric patients 6 to 17 years of age (n= 559) were evaluated in 2 placebo-controlled 6-week trials. There was no significant efficacy difference between buspirone and placebo. Long-term safety and efficacy data are lacking. Dosages studied: 2.5 mg to 5 mg PO twice daily, initially. Increase by 5 mg/day at intervals of 3 to 7 days as needed and tolerated. Max: 60 mg/day, given in 2 to 3 divided doses. In one study of pediatric patients with an anxiety disorder, doses of 5 to 7.5 mg PO twice a day were safe and well-tolerated in children (n = 13) and doses of 5 to 30 mg PO twice daily were found to be safe and tolerated in adolescents (n = 12). The study indicated that children 12 years of age and younger may have a decreased tolerability to high dosages.
    • Buspirone Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Adults: 7.5 mg PO twice daily initially, then increase if needed by 5 mg/day every 2 to 3 days. Usual maintenance dose: 15 to 30 mg/day given in 2 to 3 divided doses. Max: 60 mg/day PO.
    • Buspirone Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Geriatric Adults: 5 mg PO twice daily initially, then increase as needed by 5 mg/day every 2 to 3 days. Usual maintenance dose: 15 to 30 mg/day given in 2 to 3 divided doses. Max: 60 mg/day.
• Tricyclic antidepressants ^c110
  • Imipramine ^r7c111
    • Imipramine Hydrochloride Oral tablet; Adults: Initially, 10 mg PO once daily at bedtime. Titrate by 10 mg PO every 2 to 4 days as tolerated. Average target range is 50 to 200 mg/day. Max: 300 mg/day. ^r4

Nondrug and supportive care

• All patients and their families are directed to self-help internet sites for education on generalized anxiety disorder (eg, Anxiety and Depression Association of America^r45) ^r44c112
  • Educate patients on lifestyle changes that may help reduce symptoms
    • Improving quality and quantity of sleep ^c113
    • Regular exercise ^c114
      • Exercise has been shown to have significant ability to reduce anxiety symptoms and is encouraged ^r46r47
    • Minimizing caffeine and alcohol intake ^c115c116
    • Avoiding nicotine and other drugs ^c117c118
• Psychotherapy
  • Cognitive behavioral therapy ^c119
    • Multiple types of psychotherapy have been applied to the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder, with evidence strongest for the efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy ^r4
    • Recommended for all patients, although use may be guided by resource availability, patient finances, or patient preference
    • Teaches patients to substitute positive thoughts for anxiety-provoking ones ^r7
    • Brief description: ^r48
      • Present a cognitive model of anxiety to the patient and train in self-monitoring and identification of cues that contribute to interpretations of threat
      • Inform patients that therapy focuses on learning different, less anxiety-provoking ways of viewing the self, the world, and the future
      • Use standard cognitive therapy procedures (eg, outlining cognitive predictions, interpretations, beliefs, and assumptions that lead to threatening perceptions); emphasize Socratic method (ie, stimulate critical thinking by asking and answering questions)
      • Focus discussions on multiple alternative perspectives for any given situation of daily living; homework emphasizes frequent applications of alternative perspectives and behavioral tasks
    • Reduction in intolerance of uncertainty is an important predictor of outcome
    • Therapy can be delivered in 6 to 12 sessions at weekly intervals ^r48

Comorbidities

• Major depressive disorder is the most common coexisting psychiatric illness in patients with generalized anxiety disorder, coexisting in nearly two-thirds of cases ^r12c120c121
  • Occurs more often in female individuals than in male individuals ^r1
  • Combination of these disorders is termed cothymia^r7
  • Antidepressants are the preferred drug treatment, in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy
• Panic disorder ^r7c122
  • Occurs in 25% to 50% of patients with generalized anxiety disorder ^r5r12
  • Combination of buspirone with cognitive behavioral therapy is more effective than psychotherapy alone

Special populations

• Children
  • Preferably, treat with cognitive behavioral therapy; medications such as antidepressants are often avoided over concern for adverse effects ^r7
    • However, the combination of cognitive behavioral therapy and sertraline has demonstrated efficacy in children between the ages of 7 and 17 years ^r49
• Pregnant patients
  • In the perinatal period, generalized anxiety may be exacerbated, requiring pharmacotherapy in addition to psychotherapy ^r12
    • Prescribe half the usual drug dose (typically buspirone) for pregnant patients, as benzodiazepines may have teratogenic effects ^r12
    • 1 of the goals of therapy in these patients is to prevent premature birth or miscarriage due to anxiety

Screening tests

• Women's Preventive Services Initiative guidelines recommend screening for anxiety in adult and adolescent female patients aged 13 years or older, including pregnant and postpartum patients ^r51r52
  • Use clinical judgment to determine frequency of screening
• Appropriate screening instruments include: ^r51r53
  • Beck Anxiety Inventory ^c129
  • GAD-7 (Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale) ^c130
  • K-10 (Kessler Psychological Distress Scale) ^c131
  • PHQ-9 (Patient Health Questionnaire) ^c132
  • GAD-2, PHQ-2, K-6 (abbreviated versions of the above scales)
  • SCARES (Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional disorders Scale) ^c133
  • HADS (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) ^c134
  • Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale ^c135
  • Bright Futures Pediatric Symptom Checklist–Youth Report in adolescent and young adult female patients ^c136